Paul the Deacon's Roman History (Book One)

From Rome's origins to the first sack of Rome

Sep 24, 2025

Paul the Deacon, an eighth century monk of Lombard origin, wrote a history of the Romans that is traditionally divided into sixteen books. The work, dedicated to the Lombard noblewoman Adelperga, provides a very readable and concise overview of Roman history. Accordingly, I have decided to translate it book by book. Parts of the work were used as a source by the thirteenth century CE Toledan archbishop Rodrigo Ximénez de Rada in his ‘History of the Romans’ (one of his ‘Minor Histories’, see my forthcoming book for more).

The first book traces Rome’s origins right back to Janus (the two-faced god in Roman mythology) through to the Trojan hero Aeneas’ arrival in Italy and the dynasty of Alban kings, the founding of Rome by Romulus in 753 BC, Rome’s first kings, the first consuls of the republican system after the expulsion of the kings, the decemviri (ten man commission governing the republic), and the sack of Rome by the Senonian Gauls (390 or 387 BC). I would like to dedicate this translation to my friend Georgy Kantor of Oxford University, some of whose lectures on Roman history I attended during my time there as an undergraduate.

In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ

Here begins the first book of the Roman History

1. Janus was the first to reign in Italy, as some believe. Then Saturn fled from his son Jupiter[i] in Greece and came to the town named Saturnia after him. Its ruins can still be seen in Tuscany’s territory not far from the city of Rome. Since this Saturn lay hidden in Italy, it was called Latium,[ii] named after his hiding place. He taught the hitherto uneducated peoples how to build homes, cultivate land, plant vineyards and live in accordance with human customs. For previously these semi-wild people only sustained their life through eating acorns and lived either in caves or cottages made out of leaves and thickets. He was also the first to introduce bronze coins for them. Because of these merits, he was called a god by this uneducated and rustic multitude.

After Saturn, his son Picus ruled. In myth, it is said that a very famous witch called Circe turned him into a bird that bears his own name, because he spurned her love.

After Picus, Picus’ son Faunus ruled. He was the father of Latinus, whose mother Carmentis Nicostrata is believed to have invented Latin letters. Over the time of these people’s reigns, 150 years are reported to have passed.

During the reign of Latinus, who corrected the Latin language and named the Latins after himself, Troy was captured by the Greeks, while Abdon[iii] was in the third year of his reign among the Hebrews, Tautanes was ruling the Assyrians, and Thous was ruling the Egyptians. 4019 years had passed since the beginning of the world, and 1777 years since the flood, 835 years since the birth of Abraham and the 43rd year of the reign of Ninus the king of the Assyrians, 410 years since the birth of Moses, and it was 404 years before the founding of Rome, and 406 years before the first Olympiad.[iv]

After Troy was captured, Aeneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, came to Italy in the third year after Troy was destroyed. He fought with Turnus the son of Daunus (the king of the Tuscans) and killed him. He married Turnus’ fiancée Lavinia who was the daughter of King Latinus. Aeneas named the town of Lavinium (which he built) after her. And so Aeneas ruled the Latins for three years.

When Aeneas passed away from this life, Ascanius became ruler. His name was also Julius and he was Aeneas’ son. Aeneas had begotten her from his wife Creusa at Troy and had brought him along when he came to Italy. Having left the realm of his stepmother Lavinia, Ascanius founded Alba Longa and raised his brother Silvius Postumus (Aeneas’ son via Lavinia) with utmost compassion. Then Ascanius begat his son Julius, from whom the Julian family arose. Since the small boy was not yet suitable to rule the citizens, Ascanius left his brother Silvius Postumus to be heir to his kingdom after he had reigned for 38 years.

Silvius Postumus reigned for 29 years. He was called Postumus because he was begotten after his father died.[v] He was called Silvius because he had been raised in the countryside.[vi] All the Albans’ kings were named Silvii after him.

After him, Aeneas Silvius ruled for 31 years.

Then Latinus Silvius ruled for 50 years. In this time, David ruled among the Hebrews.

After Latinus’ death, Alba Silvius ruled for 39 years.

After him, Alba’s son Aegyptus/Atys ruled for 24 years.

Then Capis Silvius, the aforementioned king’s son, ruled for 28 years. He founded Capua in Campania.

Then Carpentus Silvius, Capis’ son, ruled for 13 years.

After him, Tiberinus, the son of Carpentus, ruled for nine years. The river Tiber was named after him, because he fell into it and perished. It was previously called the Albula.

Agrippa Silvius succeeded him, ruling for 40 years. During the times of his reign, Homer[vii] is said to have lived among the Greeks.

Then Aremus Silbius, the son of the aforementioned Agrippa, ruled for 19 years. This man placed the Albans’ citadel among the hills where Rome is now located. He was struck by a lightning bolt and perished because of his impiety.

Aventinus Silvius reigned after him for 37 years. He was the son of the aforementioned King Remulus, and he died and was buried on the hill that is now part of the city of Rome. He gave his eternal name to the place.

His successor was his son Procas Silvius. He ruled for 23 years. During his reign, Fidon the Argive invented measures and weights, while Azariah was reigning among the Hebrews in Judah and Jeroboam among the Hebrews in Israel.[viii]

Procas was succeded by his younger son Amulius, who ruled for 43 years. Numitor, the elder son of King Procas, was deposed by his brother Amulus and lived on his farm. So that she could be prevented from giving birth, Numitor’s daughter was made a Vestal Virgin.[ix] When she bore twins in the seventh year of her uncle’s reign, she was buried alive in accordance with the law. As for the little boys who were exposed near the Tiber’s bank, they were brought by Faustulus to his wife Acca Laurentia. Faustulus was the king’s pastor for his cattle. On account of her beauty and her greed by which she prostituted her body, she was called a she-wolf by her neighbours. Hence even in our own times, the chambers of prostitutes are called lupanaria.[x] When the boys became young men, they brought together a band of pastors and thieves, killed Amulius at Alba, and reinstated their grandfather Numitor as ruler.

Thus did the Roman Empire originate from Romulus. Human memory almost cannot remember any other empire in the entire world that was smaller than it from the outset, nor one that grew larger than it by increments. As has been stated above, Romulus was the son of the Vestal Virgin Rea Silvia and supposedly the son of Mars.[xi] He and his brother Remus were begotten as twins. While they committed robbery among the pastors, when Romulus was 18 years old he founded a small city on the Palatine hill, ten days before the Kalends of May,[xii] in the year of the sixth Olympiad. This was 419 years after Troy was destroyed, or, as Orosius thinks, 404 years. This was six years before the ten tribes of Israel were transferred to the Medes’ mountains by Sennacherib, the king of the Chaldeans.

2. After the city was founded, which Romulus called Rome after himself, and after which also the Romans have been given their own name, he more or less did the following. Having founded a temple he called an asylum, he promised that all who fled to it would enjoy immunity. Hence a multitude of neighbouring people, who had committed some offence among their own fellow citizens, were received by him in the city as they fled to him. In short there was an influx of Latins, Tuscan pastors, Phrygians[xiii] from across the sea who came under Aeneas’ leadership, and Arcadians who were led by Evander. And so from these seemingly various elements, Romulus brought together one body and created the Roman people. He chose 100 of the more elderly members of the body so that through their counsel he could manage all their affairs. Because of their elderliness, he called them senators,[xiv] and he called them fathers because of the similar concern they were to show.

Since neither he nor his people had wives, he invited the nations neighbouring the city of Rome to watch the games, and he snatched their virgins in the third year after the city was founded. Then one of the virgins, who was very beautiful, was decreed for Romulus’ general Talassus by the acclamation of all those who seized the virgins. Hence, in the solemnities of marriage, the commonly shout “For Talassus!”, in that such is the marriage that merits to have Talassus as a husband. With wars stirred up because of the injustice of the seized women, Romulus defeated the Caecinenses, Antemnates, Crustumii, Sabines, Fidenates and Bizentes. All these localities surround Rome. At that time also, Tarpeia the virgin of the Sabines was covered with shields on a hill, and thus the hill was named Tarpeius after her. Later the Capitolium was built on it.

Nonetheless, the Romans struck alliances with the Sabines whose daughters they had seized, such that Tatius the king of the Sabines co-reigned with Romulus and the Sabines and the Romans became one people. At that time, in order to strengthen the alliance, the Romans put the Sabines’ name in front of their own and the Sabines did likewise with the Romans. Thus the custom has held that no Roman is without a forename. On account of this alliance, Romulus bore a spear as the Sabines did, and in the Sabines’ language it was called a cyris. Thus Romulus was called Quirinus, and the Romans began to be called Quirites, either named after the cyres (i.e. spears) or after Quirinus.

Remus was killed by his brother Romulus’ general Fabius with a shepherd’s mattock. It is said this was done in accordance with Romulus’ wishes. The reason for Remus’ demise was as follows: that he lambasted the rampart as being insufficient to protect the new city, and he jumped over its narrow width.[xv]

As for Romulus, when it turned out he was nowhere to be seen at the swamp of Capra, he was believed to have crossed over to the gods in the 39th year of his rule. He was consecrated by the name of Quirius. Then the senators ruled Rome for five-day periods, and under their rule one year passed.[xvi]

3. Then Numa Pompilius was made king, while Hezekiah ruled among the Hebrews. He waged no war, but he was no less useful to the city than Romulus. For he established laws and customs for the Romans, who by now, because of their habit of waging battles, came across as thugs and semi-barbarians. He divided the year into ten months- the year having previously been confused without any computation. He also established countless holy sites and temples at Rome. He died of illness in the 41st year of his rule. While Numa was reigning, Glaucus was the first to invent the process of soldering of iron.

4. Numa was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius. He was the first of the Romans to adopt purple dress and the fasces,[xvii] while Manasseh was reigning in Judea. He revived the wars, conquered the Albans (who are located 12 miles from Rome) and by waging war he defeated the Veientes and Fidenates, of whom some are seven miles from Rome, while others are 18 miles from Rome. He expanded the city by adding the Caelian hill to it. Once he had ruled for 32 years, he was struck by a lightning bolt and was scorched along with his home. In these times, the city of Byzantium was founded. It was later called Constantinople.

5. After Tullus, Ancus Marcius became ruler. He was Numa’s grandson via his daughter. In this period also, Josiah was ruling among the Hebrews. He fought against the Latins, added the Aventine hill to the city and established the Ianiculum, located at the city of Ostia on the seashore, sixteen miles from the city of Rome. He died of illness in the 23rd year of his reign. While he was reigning, Epidamnus was founded. It was later called Dyrracium.[xviii]

6. Then Priscus Tarquinius became ruler. He doubled the number of senators, built Rome’s circus and instituted the Roman games that endure till our own times. He also conquered the Sabines, confiscated a considerable number of their fields, and added them to Rome’s territory. He was the first to enter Rome in triumph. He built the walls and sewers, and established the Capitolium. In the 37th year of his rule, he was killed by the sons of Ancus- i.e. the king whom he had succeeded. While Tarquinius was ruling, Arion Methimneus is said to have been transported by a dolphin to Taenarum. At that time Massilia[xix] was also founded. In the same period, Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar.

7. After Priscus, Servius Tullius became ruler, born to a noblewoman who was nonetheless a captive and slave-girl. He ruled for 34 years. While he ruled, Baltasar ruled the Chaldeans. During his rule, Daniel read and interpreted the mystical writing on the wall. Servius also subjugated the Sabines, added the Quirinal, Viminal and Aesculinan hills to Rome, and had ditches dug outside the wall. He was the first to ordain a census of all- this practice having hitherto been unknown throughout the world. During his rule, Rome held a census of all and was found to have 84,000 Roman citizens, including those who were in the fields. Servius was killed in a crime committed by his son-in-law Tarquinius Superbus (the son of the king whom Servius had succeeded) and his daughter whom Tarquinius had as a wife.

8. And so Lucius Tarquinius Superbus usurped power as the seventh and last king. In this period, 42400 Jews returned to Jerusalem after being released by Cyrus, the king of the Persians. Lucius was the first to invent chains, whips of bull’s hide, clubs, prisons made of rock, jails, shackles, chains, punishments of exile and baskets filled with stones. He defeated the Vulsci, a people located not far from the city of Rome for those going towards Campania.[xx] He also subjugated the city of Gabii and Suessa Pometia, made peace with the Tuscans, and built a temple of Jupiter on the Capitolium. Later, while attacking Ardea (a city located 18 miles from the city of Rome), he lost rule. For his son- also called the younger Tarquinius, had raped the very noble wife of Conlatinius, and she complained to her husband, father and friends about the justice. And so the younger Tarqunius killed himself in the sight of all. Thus, Brutus, who was also Tarquinius’ father, summoned the people and took power away from Tarquinius. Tarquinius was also abandoned by his army that was attacking Ardea with their king. And so when the king came to the city of Rome, the gates were closed and he was shut out, having ruled for 35 years. He fled with his wife and children. And so Rome was ruled by seven kings for 243 years,[xxi] with Rome at this point hardly possessing much territory as far as the fifteenth milestone. In the times of Tarquinius’ rule, the very chaste Judith killed Holophernes. In the same period, Pythagoras the philosopher was renowned. He originated from Samos and lived at Croton. Eventually he went to Metapontum[xxii] and was buried there.

9. From here the consuls began to rule, two of them instead of one king. They were established for this reason: that if one wished to be evil, the other, wielding similar power, could keep him in check. It was also decided that they should not have power for more than a year lest they should become rather insolent because of the longevity of their power, but rather they should always be civilians, who would know that they were private citizen after one year. And so in the first year, after the kings were expelled, the consuls were Lucius Junius Brutus (who had done his utmost to ensure Tarquinius was expelled) and Tarquinius Conlatinus, Lucretia’s husband. But the dignity of rank was immediately taken away from Tarquinius Conlatinus. For it had been decided that no one called Tarquinius should remain in the city of Rome. And so, after receiving all his inheritance, he left the city and Lucius Valerius Publicola was made consul in his place. Nonetheless, King Tarquinius who had been expelled made war on the city of Rome. Having brought together many peoples, he fought in order to be reinstated as ruler.

10. In the first engagement, the consul Brutus and Tarqunius’ son Arruns killed each other. But the Romans left the fight victorious. For a year, the Roman matrons mourned Brutus, the defender of their chastity, as though he were their common father. Valerius Publicola made Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus his colleague. He was Lucretia’s father. After Spurious died of an illness, Valerius made Horatius Pulvillus his colleague. Thus the first year had five consuls, since Tarquinius Conlatinus had left the city because of his name, while Brutus had perished in battle, and Spurius Lucretius had died of illness.

11. In addition, in the second year, Tarquinius again made war on the Romans in order to be received as ruler. He was aided here by King Porsenna of Tuscany, and he almost captured Rome. But then he was also defeated.

In the third year after the kings were expelled, since Tarquinius could not be received as ruler and Porsenna would not provide him help seeing as he had made peace with the Romans, Tarquinius brought himself to Tusculum- a city not far from Rome. There he grew old as a private citizen with his wife over a period of 14 years.

In the fourth year after the kings were expelled, when the Sabines made war on the Romans, the former were defeated and the Romans held a triumph to celebrate their victory over them.

In the fifth year, Lucius Valerius, who was Brutus’ colleague and consul four times, died of natural causes. He was so poor that only after coins were gathered by the people did he have the means to afford a burial. The matrons mourned him for a year, just as they did for Brutus.

12. In the ninth year after the kings were expelled, since Tarquinius’ son-in-law brought together a huge army to avenge his father-in-law’s injustice, a new dignity of rank was created at Rome. It is called the dictatorship and it is greater than the consulate. In the same year the position of master of horsemen was created, so that he would be subordinate to the dictator. And nothing can be deemed more similar to this imperial power that your serene highness now has than the ancient dictatorship, especially since Augustus (aka Octavian),[xxiii] about whom we will later speak, and before him Gaius Caesar[xxiv] ruled under the name and honour of dictatorship. The first dictator at Rome was Larcius, while the first master of horsemen was Spurius Cassius.

13. In the sixteenth year after the expulsion of the kings, the people at Rome revolted, as though they were being oppressed by the senate and consuls. Then the people established the tribunes of the people for themselves, to serve as their own judges and defenders (as it were), through whom the people could be protected against the Senate and the consuls. In the same period, by permission of Xerxes the King of the Persians, Nehemiah came to Judea and restored the walls and city of Jerusalem.

14. In the following year, the Vulsci renewed their war against the Romans and after being defeated in battle they also lost the city of Corioli, which was the best one they had.

15. In the fifteenth year after the kings were expelled, the Roman commander Quintus Marcius, who had captured Corioli (the Vulsci’s city) was expelled from the city. Angered, he hurried to the Vulsci and received help from them to fight against the Romans. He often defeated the Romans and came within five miles of the city, intending to attack his country. He rejected the ambassadors who sued for peace. However, his mother Vetueria and his wife Velumnia came to him from the city of Rome. Overcome by their entreaty, he removed his army. This man was the second person after Tarquinius to lead an army against his country.

16. When Gaius Flavius and Lucius Virginiu were consuls, 300 noblemen, who were of the Favian family, waged war by themelves against the Veientes, promissing the Senate and people that they would carry out the entire struggle themselves. And so all the nobles set out, and those who should have each been commanders of great armies fell in battle. In total, one person of such a great family survived. Because of his young age, he could not be brought to the fight.

After this, a census was held in the city, and it was found that there were 117,319 citizens.

17. In the following year, while the Roman army was being besieged on Mount Algidus, around 12 miles from the city, Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus was made dictator. Possessing a field of fourteen acres, he would cultivate it with his own hands. When he was found ploughing as part of his work, he wiped off the sweat on his body, took up the toga praetextata, and after slaughtering the enemy he freed the army. He imposed the yoke of oxen on the Aequi. Considering victory to be like a plough-handle, he was the first to drive his subjugated enemies in front of himself.

18. In the 302nd year after the founding of Rome, consular power came to an end, and ten people were put in place of the two consuls. They were to have highest authority and were called the decemviri. While they governed well in the first year, in the second year, one of them- Appius Claudius- wanted to take the virginity of the daughter of a certain Virginius, who was performing military service with by now decent wages against the Latins on Mount Algidus. Her father killed her lest she should endure disgrace at the hands of the decemvir. He went out to the soldiers and stirred up a revolt. The decemviri’s power was removed and they were condemned.

19. In the 315th year after Rome was founded, the Fidenates rebelled against the Romans. The Veientes and Tolumnius the king of the Veientes provided them help. Both cities are so near the city of Rome that Fidene and Veientium are 18 miles away from it. The Vulsci joined them. But when Mamercus Emilius was dictator and Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus was master of soldiers, the Veientes were defeated and also lost their king. Fidene was captured and destroyed.

20. Twenty years later, the Veientani rebelled. The dictator Furius Camillus was sent against them. He initially defeated them in battle, and soon also besieged their city for a long time and them captured it. It was the oldest and richest city of Italy. Later also he captured Falisci, a no less noble city. But jealousy was stirred up against him, as though he had badly divided the booty. Damned for this reason, he was also expelled from the city. Forthwith the Senonian Gauls came to the city, defeated the Romans 11 miles from Rome, pursued them at the river Allia and also seized the city. Nothing could be defended except the Capitolium. The Gauls besieged it for a long time, and with the Romans now suffering hardship because of hunger, Camillus, who was in exile in a neighbouring city, came to fight the Gauls, who were very heavily defeated. Nonetheless, having received 1000 pounds of gold so they would not besiege the Capitolium, they retreated, but Camillus pursued them and slaughtered them in such a way that he recovered the gold that had been given to them and all the military standards they had captured. And so triumphant for the third time, he entered the city of Rome and was called the second Romulus, as though he were the founder of the country.

Around these times, the story of Esther is thought to have been written. Plato the philosopher is also said to have existed in these times.

Here ends the first book of the Roman History.

Notes

[i] In Roman mythology, Saturn and Jupiter become equated with Kronos and Zeus respectively.

[ii] Drawing an etymological link to the Latin verb latere (’lie hidden’).

[iii] According to the Book of Judges, he was the eleventh judge of Israel.

[iv] i.e. 1157 BC. Note that the Olympiad is a system for reckoning years according to when Olympic Games are held.

[v] Because postumus in Latin means born after a parent dies (cf. English: posthumous).

[vi] Linked to the Latin word silva (which means ‘wood’).

[vii] A Greek epic poet to whom the Iliad and Odyssey are attributed.

[viii] i.e. The period of the early eighth century BC.

[ix] A priestess of Vesta, sworn to celibacy. The purpose of her dedication as a virgin was to ensure Numitor’s line would cease.

[x] Drawing an etymological connection with the Latin word lupa (’she-wolf’). As can be seen, the story of the rearing of Romulus and Remus is ‘demythologised’ by having them raised by a woman portrayed as a ‘she-wolf’ because of her eagerness to engage in harlotry.

[xi] The Roman god of war, equated with Ares.

[xii] i.e. 22 April.

[xiii] A region of northwest Asia Minor, where Troy was supposedly located.

[xiv] Drawing a connection with the Latin word senex (’old man’).

[xv] The story being that it was forbidden for anyone to enter Rome except through the city gate.

[xvi] i.e. The interim year was divided into five-day periods of rule.

[xvii] Bundles of wooden rods with an axe blade that signified power/authority.

[xviii] Site of a famous battle between Julius Caesar and Pompey in 48 BC.

[xix] Now Marseilles in southern France.

[xx] A region located south of Rome.

[xxi] This puts the end of the Roman kingdom at 510 BC.

[xxii] Located in southern Italy.